The Koran

Sphinx. A mythological creature with a lion’s body and a human head, occurring in the art of Near and Middle Eastern civilizations. The most famous is the Great Sphinx at Giza, Egypt, dating from the 3rd millennium BC. In Greek legend, the Sphinx was a female monster that preyed on travelers to Thebes. She killed those unable to answer her riddle, which was solved by Oedipus. It is said that Napoleon's army used the face of this fine carving for target practice. More alarming is that the sphinx is said to be about 5,000 years old but in fact the statue was carved around 12,500 years ago. The original body and face was that of a lion, instead of the present configuration. Apparently due to torrential precipitation for many decades much of the statues were eroded. The remarkable Egyptians re-carved the head to that of the Sphinx.

Above all else, historically we know Egypt for its pyramids, but these were not simply constructed blocks of stone used to indicate the grave of a pharaoh; they were not like today’s mausoleum or tombstone. To think so is to misinterpret completely what the ancient Egyptians believed when it came to the concept of kingship. Pharaohs were not just people who ruled over a great nation, such as Elizabeth I did in England. 

They were the reincarnation of the Falcon God Horus and when a pharaoh went to meet Osiris, the god of the underworld, this was the euphemistic way to denote the death of a pharaoh. Moreover, the spirit of Horus passed into the next king. The deceased pharaoh then became a god and therefore the pyramid in which he was concealed became a temple to him; a church in a long line of churches. After and during the building of a pyramid, a whole network of support services emerged in the district to preserve it. Housing was needed for the priests who manned the temples, for the sentinel who protected the body of the new god from thieves who would often ransack a tomb to get their hands on the treasures, that were always buried with the deceased. Farms and villages grew up to supply workers and food for the workers, and so it went on, a myriad of industries being established just to take care of a block of constructed stone.

Isis. An Egyptian goddess, the sister and wife of Osiris, whose dismembered body she magically restored to life, and mother of Horus. She was portrayed holding Horus and wearing on her head the sun’s disc and a cow’s horns.

Horus The Egyptian sun god, usually portrayed as a falcon or with a falcon’s head. He was the son of  Osiris and Isis. The pharaohs were regarded as the incarnations of Horus.

Osiris The Egyptian god of the dead, the brother and husband of Isis; as the father of Horus (the sun), he was also the god of renewal and rebirth. He was killed by his evil brother. After Isis had magically reconstructed his body, he became ruler of the underworld. Dead pharaohs became identified with Osiris.

Tutankhamen, King of Egypt (c. 1361–1352 BC) of the 18th dynasty. He became king at the age of 11. He replaced Akhenaton’s worship of the sun-god Aton with that of Amon and returned the capital to Thebes. His tomb was discovered by Howard Carter (1874–1939) in 1922.

Egypt, Arab Republic in NE Africa, extending into SW Asia. Most of the country consists of desert—the Sinai Peninsula, the Eastern Desert, and the Western Desert, the population being concentrated along the fertile Nile Valley. Economy: modern irrigation schemes, such as the Aswan High Dam, have led to an increase in the production of cotton, the chief cash crop and there has been considerable expansion of industry since the 1950s. Oil was discovered in 1909 and in recent years, production has greatly increased. Egypt’s archaeological remains make tourism important. History: ancient Egypt was ruled by 30 successive dynasties of pharaohs from about 3100 BC until 343 BC. The famous pyramids were built in the period c. 2686–c. 2160. Notable rulers included Thutmose III and Ramses (II) the Great. Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332. On his death the Macedonian, Ptolemy I, acquired Egypt. The Ptolemy regime ruled until the suicide of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, when Egypt passed under Roman rule. In 395 AD, Egypt became part of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. The Arabs conquered Egypt in 642, after which it was governed by a series of caliphs under whom Islam was introduced. From 1250 until 1517, the Mamelukes ruled it, when the Ottoman Turks conquered it.

In 1798, Napoleon established a French protectorate over Egypt, which in 1801 was overthrown by the British and Ottomans. In 1869, the opening of the Suez Canal gave Egypt greater international significance. From 1882, the British dominated Egyptian government. In 1914, on the outbreak of World War I, Egypt became a British protectorate until independence under King Fu’ad I was granted in 1922. In 1936 his son Farouk signed a treaty of alliance with Britain, which retained rights in the Suez Canal zone. The postwar period saw the first Arab-Israeli War (1948–49) and a military coup (1952) that overthrew the monarchy (1953) and brought Nasser to power (1954); he nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956.

In 1958 Egypt, Syria, and subsequently North Yemen formed the United Arab Republic, a name retained by Egypt until 1971. In the Six Day War with Israel (1967) Egypt lost the Sinai peninsula, which was partly regained in 1973. In 1970 Nasser was succeeded by Sadat. In 1979, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty. Sadat was assassinated by Islamic extremists in 1981; he was succeeded as president by Hosni Mubarak (1929–  ). Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Official currency: Egyptian pound of 100 piastres. Area: 1,000,000 sq km (386,198 sq mi). Population (1987 est): 49,280,000. Capital: Cairo. Main port: Alexandria.

Mauritania. This Saharan country can be divided culturally into two peoples, with the north being Arab and Berber and the south being Black African. Over hundreds of years, the southern part of Mauritania belonged to the kingdoms of Ghana, then Mali, and finally Sanghay. In the early 1400s, the Portuguese arrived to trade. Their dominance in the area was unchallenged for the next one hundred years when the British, French, and Dutch each contested the Portuguese control.

It is not easy to imagine now, but like most of the Saharan region, Mauritania once had large lakes, rivers and enough flora to support a profusion of elephants, hippos and rhinos. There is even evidence of human habitation in the manner of arrowheads, some bones and rock drawings linked to the ancient Bafour people. This all came to, geologically speaking, a sudden stop when the Sahara began desertification, approximately 10,000 years ago.

Around 300 BC the camel was discovered and utilized by the Berbers in Morocco. For the people of Mauritania, this meant the arrival of the nomads and of course the camel, as travelers of arid regions were then able to cover longer distances with these ships of the desert. They traded salt, gold and slaves - throughout the Western Sahara. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the first empire in West Africa emerged. Known as the Empire of Ghana, it had its capital in southwest Mauritania. Their nomadic rulers reduced the Berbers who had settled in the region to vassals and Islam began spreading throughout the region, which continued to strengthen the Arab culture that survives today

Camel.  A hoofed mammal used for riding, as pack animals, and as a source of milk, meat, wool, and hides. The one-humped Arabian camel is about 2 m high and generally brown. The dromedary is a long-legged breed of Arabian camel developed for racing and riding. The heavier two-humped Bactrian camel is native to central Asian steppes, where wild herds still exist. Adapted to living in sandy deserts, camels can close their nostrils; have heavy protective eyelashes, and horny kneepads for kneeling. Camels can replace rapidly the water that is lost from the body, drinking up to 60 liters of water at a time. Fat (not water) is stored in the hump, which shrinks when food is scarce.

Islam  (Arabic: submission to God) A world religion, started in Arabia in the 7th century AD, the main belief of which is that there is one God, Allah, and that Mohammed is his prophet. The Koran, the basis of Islamic belief, and its legal and social system, records Mohammed’s revelations. Followers of Islam, called Muslims, have five main duties: belief in Allah and Mohammed; observance at set times of five daily prayers; fasting during Ramadan; payment of a tax for charity; and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once. The main sects are the Sunnites (or Sunni) and the Shiites (or Shiah). There are an estimated 450 million Muslims worldwide.

Mali is a nation old enough to have historical rock paintings that date back to a time when the Sahara was a blossoming paradise. The first recorded empire that covered the northwest region of this great desert was the Empire of Ghana. However, this had its downfall, around 1100 AD, when the Arab occupation spread further. The Muslim Berbers from Mauritania and Morocco objected to the mild mannered attitude in which the empire embraced Islam. By the middle of the 13th century, through political reasons the leader of the Mandinka people had strategically converted his people to Islam and was then able to control the gold and salt trade and keep it out of the hands of the Arab marauders.

Mali, Republic of  (name until 1959: French Sudan) A large country in West Africa. Economy: subsistence agriculture includes livestock (sheep, cattle, camels), rice millet, cassava, cotton, and groundnuts. River fishing is important and dried and smoked fish, together with cattle and groundnuts, are the main exports. Industry is based on hides and food processing. Bauxite, uranium, and oil are present but only salt and small quantities of gold are exploited. History: occupied by successive empires, the area was conquered in the 19th century by the French and, as French Sudan, it became part of French West Africa. It achieved internal self-government as part of the French Community in 1958 and became a fully independent republic in 1960. In 1968, the government was overthrown in a military coup led by Lt Moussa Traoré (1936–  ), who became president in 1969. He was replaced in a coup in 1991 by Lt-Col Amadou Touré (1948–  ). Official language: French. Official currency: Mali franc of 100 centimes. Area: 1,204,021 sq km (464 752 sq mi). Population (1988 est): 7,784,000. Capital: Bamako.

Niger,  The Great Ptolemy wrote of the Roman expeditions to the Aïr Massif, describing many Neolithic remains of an early rural society that had been in the desert areas of Niger. In 1100 AD, Tuareg migrated from the desert to the Aïr region, where they later established a state centered at Agadez. This was to be found on a major trans-Saharan caravan route, which connected North Africa to the present-day North Nigeria. In East Niger, Bilma, a salt-mining center, was on another important trans-Saharan route that linked North Africa with the state of Bornu, which is now in Nigeria.

Around 1400 AD, the Hausa who were in the south founded several city-states in Niger. In the 1600’s, much of West and central Niger came under the Songhai empire and after the fall of Songhai at the end of the 16th century. East and central Niger passed to Bornu. In the 17oo’s. the Djerma people settled in SW Niger near the Niger River. 

Aïr Mountains. Just south of the Ténéré Desert are the Aïr Mountains, home to the Tuareg, and the beginning of the long desert camel treks in search of salt. It is the last hospitable stop before the harshness of the Ténéré Desert. The Aïr Massif is one of the most spectacular sights in West Africa. It covers an area the size of Switzerland, and has black rocks capped by unusually sharp peaks. Hidden in the interior are the hot thermal springs at Tafadek, the green oases of Timia and Iferouâne, and the spectacular waterfalls just outside of Timia.

Ptolemy (aka Claudius Ptolemaeus, Ptolomaeus, Klaudios Ptolemaios, Ptolemeus) lived in Alexandria (in Egypt) from  approx. 87 -150 AD. Very little is known about his personal life (the image above is probably purely the artist's imagination)

 He was an astronomer, mathematician and geographer. He codified the Greek geocentric view of the universe, and rationalized the apparent motions of the planets, as they were known in his time. 

Niger. A large country in West Africa, lying mainly in the Sahara. Economy: agriculture, particularly livestock raising, is important. Mineral resources include salt, natron, tin, and uranium. The main exports are uranium and groundnuts, followed by livestock. History: occupied by France (1883–99), it became a territory of French West Africa in 1904. It won independence in 1960. President: Col Ali Seybou. Population (1988 est): 7 190 000. Capital: Niamey.

Sudan. A large country in NE Africa, bordering on the Red Sea. Economy: chiefly agricultural, the main cash crop and export is cotton. Livestock rearing is important. Forest products include gum arabic and iron ore, gold, and manganese are mined. History: the NE was part of ancient Nubia. Christianized in the 6th century, the region was converted to Islam after the 13th century. In 1821 it was conquered by the Egyptians, against whom a revolt under the Mahdi took place in 1881. In 1898, an Anglo-Egyptian force under Kitchener subdued his followers and in 1899, an Anglo-Egyptian  group was established. In 1956, the Sudan became an independent republic. A coup in 1969 brought Col Jaafar al Nemeiry (1929–  ) to power. In the midst of widespread famine and virtual civil war in 1985, Nemeiry was overthrown and civilian rule re-established. Military rule returned in 1989 with a coup led by Brig Omar Hassan Ahmed el-Bashir. The early 1990s have seen continuing civil strife. Official language: Arabic; English is widely spoken. Official currency: Sudanese pound of 100 piastres and 1000 millièmes.    Area: 2,500,000 sq km (967,500 sq mi). Population (1987 est): 25 550 000. Capital: Khartoum. Main port: Port Sudan

The biggest country in Africa and the ninth largest in the world, the Sudan was second only to Egypt in its historical importance. This is mainly due, like Egypt, to the Nile and all that it held. If you fly along the Nile now you can see the abundance of vegetation and life that parallels it but go to far and the real Sahara takes over. Perhaps if it was not for the greatest river on Earth the Sudan would be mostly desert now also. But imagine what splendor these lands were in the times of Homer, he knew of these rich lands and sent traders to bring back cloth, wine and trinkets for gum-arabic, spices and slaves. Nero sent a reconnaissance mission far up the river but the experience with the vast and impenetrable papyrus swamp in the southern Sudan, that the Arabs called the ‘sudd’ dissuaded the emperor from any thought of conquest.

Sudan was invaded in the 600's by people of Semitic stock from the north. They wanted to impose their religious beliefs on Africans in Nubia, who were Christians of the Nubian Churches. The invaders were crushed and severely defeated by the Nubian Emperor, Kalydosos

During the peace treaty which came about due to the defeat of the Semites, Bakt (tribute) was imposed on Nubia as a condition for the Semites not harassing Nubian territory. The imposition of Bakt led to the introduction of the beginning of SLAVERY OF BLACKS BY THE SEMITICS.

SEMITIC INVASION AND SLAVERY LED TO THE DESTRUCTION OF BLACK CIVILIZATIONS

Despite the defeat of the Semites, they used another form of destruction that has had a lasting effect on Black civilization. That evil was slavery, and the justification was the same one used by some Christians to justify the enslavement of Blacks. The religious writings of the Semites was used to justify their enslavement of Africans.

River Nile, in N Africa, the longest river in the world. The longest of its three main tributaries, the White Nile, rises in Burundi and flows N through Lake Victoria and Lake Mobutu. At Khartoum, it is joined by the Blue Nile (which rises in the Ethiopian highlands) and later by the Atbara before flowing through a broad delta into the Mediterranean. Its annual floodwaters are controlled by the Aswan Dams. Length: 6741 km (4187 mi).

The Source of the Nile

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